Abstract
Low-friction surfaces challenge bipedal locomotion by limiting the contact forces available during stepping. Inspired by penguin waddling, we investigate how lateral torso motion and center of mass (COM) placement affect locomotion as surface friction changes. Using a five-actuator biped, we compare an upright-gait strategy with a penguin-inspired torso-over-stance-leg strategy across multiple COM placements in simulation and hardware. In the 3-D simulator MuJoCo, we sweep through sinusoidal leg and hip actuation parameters across four friction coefficients mu = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7. In simulation, torso-over-stance-leg motion produces more successful controllers and higher forward speeds at low friction, with the highest speed occurring for the high-COM configuration. Hardware experiments show the same low-friction speed trend: at mu=0.12, torso-over-stance-leg motion increases forward speed and reduces cost of transport at both tested COM ratios, and the higher COM also improves both measures. The high-COM penguin configuration is the fastest and most energy efficient while maintaining low sideways foot motion. At mu=0.45, the COM trend reverses: the lower-COM configurations are faster and more energy efficient, while gait strategy has little effect on forward speed but still changes sideways foot motion. These results show that the effects of lateral torso motion and COM placement depend on the available friction, and that forward speed, energy use, and slip-related foot motion can be modulated with a penguin-inspired torso motion on hardware.
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Cite this article
APA 7
Gu, B., Oke, N., Ortiz, G., Ashlyn, S., Pride, C., Bergbreiter, S., & Johnson, A. M. (2026). When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces. https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces
MLA 9
Gu, Ben, et al. "When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces." https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces.
Chicago (author–date)
Gu, Ben, Naomi Oke, George Ortiz, Stacy Ashlyn, Cordelia Pride, Sarah Bergbreiter, and Aaron M. Johnson. 2026. "When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces." https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces.
Harvard
Gu, B., Oke, N., Ortiz, G., Ashlyn, S., Pride, C., Bergbreiter, S. and Johnson, A. M. (2026) 'When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces', Available at: https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces.
Vancouver
Gu B, Oke N, Ortiz G, Ashlyn S, Pride C, Bergbreiter S, et al. When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces. https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces
IEEE
B. Gu, N. Oke, G. Ortiz, S. Ashlyn, C. Pride, S. Bergbreiter, and A. M. Johnson, "When to Waddle: A Comparative Study of Bipedal Torso-Stabilization on Low-Friction Surfaces," https://omanscience.com/en/articles/when-to-waddle-a-comparative-study-of-bipedal-torso-stabilization-on-low-friction-surfaces.